In organizational development (or OD), the study of career development looks at: how individuals manage their careers within and between organizations and, how organizations structure the career progress of their members, it can be tied into succession planning within most of the organization. In personal development, career development, is the total constellation of psychological, physical, economic and chance factors that combine to influence the nature and significance of work in the total life span of any given individual.
The development of a career informed by experience within a specific field of interest (with career jobs, or task specific skills as by product).
Success at each stage of development
Educational attainment commensurate with each incremental stage
Communications
Understanding of career development as a navigate process.
The lifelong psychological and behavioural processes as well as contextual influences shaping one's career over the life span.
As such, career development involves the person's creation of a career pattern, decision making style, integrating of life roles, values expression and life role self concepts.
Career guidance and counseling in the western world, most notably in the United States (USA), has
developed a comprehensive system of theories and intervention strategies in its more than 100 years of history. It began in the years of Frank Parson as a trait factor approach in the early twentieth century (Betz, Fitzgerald, Shill, 1989, Zonker, 2002) and slowly evolved to become a rather mature discipline today in the twenty first century with a strong theoretical and empirical base with the potentials to further develop into a more "global" discipline in the years ahead.
In an age of economic globalization all individuals are affected by an array of work related concerns, some of these concern are unique to certain cultures, but others are common to many cultural groups.
The development of career guidance and development into a global discipline requires a set of theoretical frameworks with universal validity and applications, as well as culture-specific models that could be used to explain career development issues as phenomenon at a local level.
SELF – CONCEPT THEORY OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Among the many theories of career choice and development, the theory by super has received much attention in the (USA) United States of America as well as in other parts of the world. Super (1969, 1980, 1990) suggested that career choice and development is essentially a process of development or developing and implementing a person's self-concept. According to Super (1990), self-concept is a product of complex interactions among a number of factors, including physical and mental growth, personal experiences and environmental characteristics and stimulation. Whereas super presumed that there is an organic mechanism acting behind the process of development and maturation, recent articulations (e.g. Herr, 1997, Savickas, 2002) of Super's theory have called for a stronger emphasis on the effects of social contexts and the reciprocal influence between the person and environment.
Building on Super's notion that self-concept theory was essentially a personal construct theory, Savickas (2002) took a constructivist. Perspective and postulated that "the process of career development or construction is essentially that of developing and implementing vocation Mkas (2002) took a constructivist. Perspective and postulated that "the process of career development or construction is essentially that of developing and implementing vocational self-concepts in work roles" (P. 155). A relatively stable self-concept should emerge in late adolescence to serve as a guide to career choice and adjustment.
However, self-concept is not a specific entity and it would continue to evolve as the person encounters new experiences and progresses through the developmental stages, life and work satisfaction is a continual process of implementing the evolving self-concept through work and other life roles.
Super (1990) proposed a life stage developmental framework with the following stages: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance (or management) and disengagement. In each stage one has to successfully manage the vocational developmental tasks that are socially expected of person's in the given chronological age range. For example in and adolescent has to cope with the vocational developmental tasks of crystallization (cognitive process involving an understanding pursue career goals consistent with that understanding), specification (making tentative and specific career choices), and implementation (taking steps to actualize career choices through engaging in training and job positions). According, the concept of "career maturity" was used to denote the degree that a person was able to fulfill the vocational development tasks required in each developmental stage. Whereas the above vocational developmental stages are likely to progress as maxi cycles in a person's life journey, super (1990) postulate that a mini-cycle consisting of the same stage from growth to disengagement would likely take place within each of the stages, particularly when a person make transition from one stage to the next. In addition, individuals would go through a mini-cycle of the stages whenever they have to make expected and unexpected career transitions such as loss of employment or due to personnel or socio economic circumstances (Savickas, 2002).
The contextual emphasis of Super's (1980, 1990) theory is most clearly depicted through his postulation of life roles and life spaces. Life at any moment is an aggregate of roles that one is assuming such as child, students, leisurite, citizens, workers, parents, and home makers. The salience of different life roles changes as on progresses through life stages, yet at each single moment two or more roles might take a more central place, while other role remain on the peripheral.
Life space is the constellation of different life roles that one is playing at a given time in different contexts or cultural "theatres", including home, community, school and work place, Bole conflicts, role interference and role confusion would likely happen when individuals are constrained in their ability to cope with the demands associated with their multiples roles. Super was instrumental in developing the international collaborative research work called work importance study (WIS) aiming to study work role salience and work values across different cultures. The (WIS) involved multiple nations in North America, Europe, Africa, Australia and Asia and resulted measures of works, roles and work values with similar structure and constructs (see Super and Sverko, 1995 for a summary of the WIS).
Many aspects of Super's theory are attractive to internal career guidance professional and researchers, including concepts such as vocational development tasks, developmental stages, career maturity, and life roles. It offers a comprehensive framework to describe and explain the process of vocational development that could guide career interventions and research. The recent anchoring of the theory on developmental contextualism takes into consideration the reciprocals influence between the person and his/her social ecology, including one's culture. Likewise, the conceptualization of career choice and development as a process of personal and career construction recognizes the effects of subjective cultural values and beliefs in shaping vocational self-concepts and preference. A good partion of the international research studies on Super's theory have used career maturity as one of the major variables (see a review by Patton & Wkan, 2001). Career maturity was examined in two recent studies conducted in Australia.
Patton, Creed and Muller (2002) administered to trade 12 students the Australia version of the career development inventory (CDI – A) (Lokan, 1984) and a measure of psychological well-being. These students were surveyed on their educational and occupational status 9 months after they graduated. Findings supported the hypothesis that students who proceeded to full-time study would have higher levels of career maturity (operationally defined as having high CDI – A scores), in compared to students who do not make a smooth transition to work or education after high school.
The authors suggested that there was a strong need for school-based intervention to assist students who might not be transitioning to full-time studies after high school.
Repetto (2001) reported a study using a Spanish version of the career development inventory (CDI) to measure the career maturity of high school students (7th grade to 12th grade) enrolled in a career intervention program called to futuro professional (TFP, meaning your future career). The intervention was designed according to Super's conceptualization of career maturity, with the following components self awareness, decision – making, career exploration and career planning and management. Apetest – posttest design was used and findings from treatment groups were compared to those from control groups were compared to those from control groups. The results suggested that the intervention was highly effective in elevating the career maturity of the students in all the grades levels.
In addition to career maturity, there are other aspects of Super's theory that need to be examined across cultures for example, self concepts is a prominent features of Super's theory and the implementation of one's interests, values and skills in a work role is instrumental to vocational developmental and satisfaction. However, there are cultural variations in the importance of self in decision making and in some cultures important life decisions such as career choices are also subjected to considerations that are familiar and collective in nature.
Even though international research on Super's theory is very much needed, Super's theory will continue to play an important role in career development practice internationally (e.g. Leong & Serafica, 2001; Patton & Lokan, 2001). Super's theory influences is best illustrated by an article by Watanabe – Moraoka, Senzaki and Herr (2001) who commented that Super's theory has received wide attention by Japanese practitioners not only in academic settings but also in business as a source of key notions in the reconsideration of the human being and work relationship in the rapidly changing work environment in contemporary Japan's (P.100).
The development of a career informed by experience within a specific field of interest (with career jobs, or task specific skills as by product).
Success at each stage of development
Educational attainment commensurate with each incremental stage
Communications
Understanding of career development as a navigate process.
The lifelong psychological and behavioural processes as well as contextual influences shaping one's career over the life span.
As such, career development involves the person's creation of a career pattern, decision making style, integrating of life roles, values expression and life role self concepts.
Career guidance and counseling in the western world, most notably in the United States (USA), has
developed a comprehensive system of theories and intervention strategies in its more than 100 years of history. It began in the years of Frank Parson as a trait factor approach in the early twentieth century (Betz, Fitzgerald, Shill, 1989, Zonker, 2002) and slowly evolved to become a rather mature discipline today in the twenty first century with a strong theoretical and empirical base with the potentials to further develop into a more "global" discipline in the years ahead.
In an age of economic globalization all individuals are affected by an array of work related concerns, some of these concern are unique to certain cultures, but others are common to many cultural groups.
The development of career guidance and development into a global discipline requires a set of theoretical frameworks with universal validity and applications, as well as culture-specific models that could be used to explain career development issues as phenomenon at a local level.
SELF – CONCEPT THEORY OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Among the many theories of career choice and development, the theory by super has received much attention in the (USA) United States of America as well as in other parts of the world. Super (1969, 1980, 1990) suggested that career choice and development is essentially a process of development or developing and implementing a person's self-concept. According to Super (1990), self-concept is a product of complex interactions among a number of factors, including physical and mental growth, personal experiences and environmental characteristics and stimulation. Whereas super presumed that there is an organic mechanism acting behind the process of development and maturation, recent articulations (e.g. Herr, 1997, Savickas, 2002) of Super's theory have called for a stronger emphasis on the effects of social contexts and the reciprocal influence between the person and environment.
Building on Super's notion that self-concept theory was essentially a personal construct theory, Savickas (2002) took a constructivist. Perspective and postulated that "the process of career development or construction is essentially that of developing and implementing vocation Mkas (2002) took a constructivist. Perspective and postulated that "the process of career development or construction is essentially that of developing and implementing vocational self-concepts in work roles" (P. 155). A relatively stable self-concept should emerge in late adolescence to serve as a guide to career choice and adjustment.
However, self-concept is not a specific entity and it would continue to evolve as the person encounters new experiences and progresses through the developmental stages, life and work satisfaction is a continual process of implementing the evolving self-concept through work and other life roles.
Super (1990) proposed a life stage developmental framework with the following stages: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance (or management) and disengagement. In each stage one has to successfully manage the vocational developmental tasks that are socially expected of person's in the given chronological age range. For example in and adolescent has to cope with the vocational developmental tasks of crystallization (cognitive process involving an understanding pursue career goals consistent with that understanding), specification (making tentative and specific career choices), and implementation (taking steps to actualize career choices through engaging in training and job positions). According, the concept of "career maturity" was used to denote the degree that a person was able to fulfill the vocational development tasks required in each developmental stage. Whereas the above vocational developmental stages are likely to progress as maxi cycles in a person's life journey, super (1990) postulate that a mini-cycle consisting of the same stage from growth to disengagement would likely take place within each of the stages, particularly when a person make transition from one stage to the next. In addition, individuals would go through a mini-cycle of the stages whenever they have to make expected and unexpected career transitions such as loss of employment or due to personnel or socio economic circumstances (Savickas, 2002).
The contextual emphasis of Super's (1980, 1990) theory is most clearly depicted through his postulation of life roles and life spaces. Life at any moment is an aggregate of roles that one is assuming such as child, students, leisurite, citizens, workers, parents, and home makers. The salience of different life roles changes as on progresses through life stages, yet at each single moment two or more roles might take a more central place, while other role remain on the peripheral.
Life space is the constellation of different life roles that one is playing at a given time in different contexts or cultural "theatres", including home, community, school and work place, Bole conflicts, role interference and role confusion would likely happen when individuals are constrained in their ability to cope with the demands associated with their multiples roles. Super was instrumental in developing the international collaborative research work called work importance study (WIS) aiming to study work role salience and work values across different cultures. The (WIS) involved multiple nations in North America, Europe, Africa, Australia and Asia and resulted measures of works, roles and work values with similar structure and constructs (see Super and Sverko, 1995 for a summary of the WIS).
Many aspects of Super's theory are attractive to internal career guidance professional and researchers, including concepts such as vocational development tasks, developmental stages, career maturity, and life roles. It offers a comprehensive framework to describe and explain the process of vocational development that could guide career interventions and research. The recent anchoring of the theory on developmental contextualism takes into consideration the reciprocals influence between the person and his/her social ecology, including one's culture. Likewise, the conceptualization of career choice and development as a process of personal and career construction recognizes the effects of subjective cultural values and beliefs in shaping vocational self-concepts and preference. A good partion of the international research studies on Super's theory have used career maturity as one of the major variables (see a review by Patton & Wkan, 2001). Career maturity was examined in two recent studies conducted in Australia.
Patton, Creed and Muller (2002) administered to trade 12 students the Australia version of the career development inventory (CDI – A) (Lokan, 1984) and a measure of psychological well-being. These students were surveyed on their educational and occupational status 9 months after they graduated. Findings supported the hypothesis that students who proceeded to full-time study would have higher levels of career maturity (operationally defined as having high CDI – A scores), in compared to students who do not make a smooth transition to work or education after high school.
The authors suggested that there was a strong need for school-based intervention to assist students who might not be transitioning to full-time studies after high school.
Repetto (2001) reported a study using a Spanish version of the career development inventory (CDI) to measure the career maturity of high school students (7th grade to 12th grade) enrolled in a career intervention program called to futuro professional (TFP, meaning your future career). The intervention was designed according to Super's conceptualization of career maturity, with the following components self awareness, decision – making, career exploration and career planning and management. Apetest – posttest design was used and findings from treatment groups were compared to those from control groups were compared to those from control groups. The results suggested that the intervention was highly effective in elevating the career maturity of the students in all the grades levels.
In addition to career maturity, there are other aspects of Super's theory that need to be examined across cultures for example, self concepts is a prominent features of Super's theory and the implementation of one's interests, values and skills in a work role is instrumental to vocational developmental and satisfaction. However, there are cultural variations in the importance of self in decision making and in some cultures important life decisions such as career choices are also subjected to considerations that are familiar and collective in nature.
Even though international research on Super's theory is very much needed, Super's theory will continue to play an important role in career development practice internationally (e.g. Leong & Serafica, 2001; Patton & Lokan, 2001). Super's theory influences is best illustrated by an article by Watanabe – Moraoka, Senzaki and Herr (2001) who commented that Super's theory has received wide attention by Japanese practitioners not only in academic settings but also in business as a source of key notions in the reconsideration of the human being and work relationship in the rapidly changing work environment in contemporary Japan's (P.100).
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